Posthumous Essays and Fragments
1879-1924
GA 46
undated manuscript, 1882
Translated by Daniel Hafner
7. The Only Possible Critique of Atomistic Concepts
Modern natural science regards Experience as the only source for the investigation of truth. And not wrongly, to be sure. Its area is the realm of outer, spatial things and temporal processes. How should one be able to make anything out about an object belonging to the outer world, without having gotten to know it by means of sense-perception, that is, the only manner of coming in contact with things spatial-temporal. First get to know the object,1Compare Vischer, Old and New, Part 3, pp. 51ff. and then theorize about it, so goes the maxim asserted by modern science over against the speculative systems of the philosophers of nature from the beginning of this century. This principle is completely justified, but by an erroneous conception, it has led science astray. The misunderstanding lies in the character attributed by the inductive method, and by the materialism and atomism issuing from it, to general concepts. For the person of understanding, there can be no doubt that the current state of natural science in its theoretical part is essentially influenced by concepts as they have become dominant through Kant. If we want to go into this relationship more closely, we must commence our consideration with him. Kant limited the scope of Recognition to Experience, because in the sensory material communicated by it, he found the only possibility of filling in the concept-patterns, the categories, inherent in our mental organization, by themselves quite empty. For him, sensory content was the only form of such a conceptual pattern. Thereby he had steered the world's judgment into other courses. If, earlier, one had thought of concepts and laws as belonging to the outer world, if one had ascribed to them objective validity, now they seemed to be given merely by the nature of the “I.” The outer world counted merely as raw material, to be sure, yet as that which alone reality was to be ascribed to. This standpoint was inherited from Kant by Inductive Science. It too counts the material world as the only thing real; for it, concepts and laws are justified only to the extent that they have that world as their content and mediate the recognizing of it. It regards concepts reaching beyond this realm as unreal. For it, general thoughts and laws are mere abstractions, derived from the agreements experienced in a series of observations. It knows mere subjective maxims, generalizations, no concrete concepts bearing their validity in themselves. This must be borne in mind if one wants to penetrate from a lot of murky concepts circulating nowadays through to complete clarity. One will first have to ask oneself:what then is Experience, really, gained of this or that object? In works on the philosophy of experience, one will search in vain for a matter-of-fact, satisfying answer to this certainly justified question.
Recognizing an object of the outer world in its essential being cannot, after all, possibly mean perceiving it with the senses, and as it presents itself to them, so drawing up a likeness of it. One will never see how, from something sensory, a corresponding conceptual photograph could come about, and what relation there could be between the two. An epistemology that starts from this standpoint can never get clear about the question of the connection of concept and object.2Compare with this the keen-minded discourses of John Rehmke in his sound work The World as Perception and Concept, Berlin, 1880. How is one to see the necessity of going beyond what is given immediately by the sense, to the concept, if in the former the essential being of an object of the sensory world were already given? Why the conceptual comprehending too, if the looking-at were already sufficient? At the least, the concept, if not a falsification, would be a highly unnecessary addition to the object. That is what one must arrive at, if one denies the concreteness of concepts and laws. Over against such pictorial explanations as, say, that of the Herbartian school, too: that the concept is the mental correlate of an object located outside us, and that the recognizing consists in acquiring such a picture, we now want to seek a reality explanation of recognizing. In keeping with the task we set ourselves, we here want to limit ourselves merely to the recognizing of the outer world. In this case, two things come into consideration in the act of recognizing: The confirmationTR1Translator Note: “confirmation” (Bestätigung) could be a mistake for “activation” (Betätigung). of thinking, and that of the senses. The former has to do with concepts and laws, the latter with sensory qualities and processes. The concept and the law are always something general, the sensory object something particular; the former can only be thought, the latter only looked at. The media through which the general appears to us as something particular are space and time. Every particular thing and every particular process must be able to be fitted into the conceptual content of the world, for whatever of it were not lawful and conceptual in nature does not come into consideration for our thinking at all. Hence, recognizing an object can only mean: giving what appears to our senses, in space, a place in the generality of the conceptual content of the world, indeed letting it merge into it completely. In the recognizing of a spatial-temporal object, we are thus given nothing else than a concept or law in a sense-perceptible way. Only by such a conception does one get over the previously mentioned unclearness. One must allow the concept its primariness, its own form of existence, built upon itself, and only recognize it again in another form in the sense-perceptible object. Thus we have reached a reality definition of Experience. The philosophy of induction can by its nature never reach a definition of this kind. For it would have to be shown in what way experience transmits concept and law. But since that philosophy sees these two as something merely subjective, its path to that is cut off from the beginning.
From this, one sees at the same time how unfruitful the undertaking would be to want to make out anything about the outer world without the help of perception. How can one gain possession of the concept in the form of viewing, without accomplishing the viewing itself? Only when one sees that what perception offers is concept and idea, but in an essentially other form than in pure thinking's form freed of all empirical content, and that this form is what makes the difference, does one comprehend that one must take the path of experience. But if one assumes the content to be what matters, then nothing can be put forth against the assertion that the same content could after all also be acquired in a manner independent of all experience. So experience must indeed be the maxim of the philosophy of nature, but at the same time, recognition of the concept in the form of outer experience. And here is where modern natural science, by seeking no clear concept of experience, got on the wrong track. In this point it has been attacked repeatedly, and is also easily open to attack. Instead of acknowledging the apriority of the concept, and taking the sense world as but another form of the same, it regards the same as a mere derivative of the outer world, which for it is an absolute Prior. The mere form of something is thus stamped the thing itself. Atomism, to the extent that it is materialistic, issues from this unclearness of the concepts. We want here, based on the preceding, to subject it to a careful, and—as I believe I can assume—the only possible, critique.
However opinions may diverge in the detail, atomism ultimately amounts to regarding all sensory qualities, such as: tone, warmth, light, scent, and so on, indeed, if one considers the way thermodynamics derives Boyle's law, even pressure, as mere semblance, mere function of the world of atoms. Only the atom counts as ultimate factor of reality. To be consistent, one must now deny it every sensory quality,because otherwise a thing would be explained out of itself. One did, to be sure, when one set about to build up an atomistic world system,attribute to the atom all kinds of sensory qualities, albeit only in quite meager abstraction.3Here belong the indications Du Bois-Reymond gives about such a system, as well as the experiments performed by Wiessner, Schramm. Translator's Note: “Schrann” is presumably a mistake for “Schramm” (Heinrich Schramm wrote The General Movement of Matter as Fundamental Cause of All Phenomena), and so I have changed it. One regards it, now as extended and impenetrable, now as mere energy center, etc. But thereby one committed the greatest inconsistency, and showed that one had not considered the above, which shows quite clearly that no sensory characteristics whatsoever may be at tributed to the atom at all. Atoms must have an existence inaccessible to sensory experience. On the other hand, though, also, they themselves, and also the processes occurring in the world of atoms, especially movements, are not supposed to be something merely conceptual. The concept, after all, is something merely universal, which is without spatial existence. But the atom is supposed, even if not itself spatial, yet to be there in space, to present something particular. It is not supposed to be exhausted in its concept, but rather to have, beyond that, a form of existence in space. With that, there is taken into the concept of the atom a property that annihilates it. The atom is supposed to exist analogously to the objects of outer perception, yet not be able to be perceived.In its concept, viewability is at once affirmed and denied.
Moreover, the atom proclaims itself right away as a mere product of speculation. When one leaves out the previously mentioned sensory qualities quite unjustifiably attributed to it, nothing is left for it but the mere “Something,” which is of course unalterable, because there is nothing about it, so nothing can be destroyed, either. The thought of mere being, transposed into space, a mere thought-point, basically just the arbitrarily multiplied Kantian “thing in itself,” confronts us.
Against this, one could perhaps object that after all it is all the same what is understood by Atom, that one should let the scholar of natural history go ahead and operate with it—for in many tasks of mathematical physics, atomistic models are indeed advantageous—; that after all, the philosopher knows that one is not dealing with a spatial reality, but with an abstraction, like other mathematical notions. To oppose the assumption of the atom in this respect would indeed be mistaken. But that is not the issue. The philosophers are concerned with that atomism for which atom and causality4Compare Vischer, Old and New, Part 2. are the only possible motivating forces of the world, which either denies all that is not mechanical, or else holds it to be inexplicable, as exceeding our cognitive ability.5This view is advocated by Du Bois-Reymond in Concerning the Limits of the Recognition of Nature and The Seven Riddles of the World, Leipzig, 1882. It is one thing to view the atom as a mere thought-point, another thing to want to see in it the fundamental principle of all existence. The former standpoint never goes beyond mechanical nature with it; the second holds everything to be a mechanical function.
If someone wanted to speak of the harmlessness of the atomistic notions, one could, to refute him, go ahead and hold up to him the consequences that have been derived from them. There are especially two necessary consequences: firstly, that the predicate of original existence is squandered on isolated substances void of spirit, quite indifferent toward one another, and otherwise wholly undefined, in whose interaction only mechanical necessity rules, so that the entire remainder of the world of phenomena exists as their empty haze, and has mere chance to thank for its existence; secondly, insurmountable limits to our recognizing result from this. For the human mind, the concept of the atom is, as we have shown, something completely empty, the mere “Something.” But since the atomists cannot be content with this content, but call for actual substance, yet determine this substance in a way in which it can nowhere be given, they must proclaim the unrecognizability of the actual essential being of the atom.
Concerning the other limit of knowledge, the following is to be noted. If one sees thinking too as a function of the interaction of complexes of atoms, which remain indifferent toward one another, it is not at all to be marveled at, why the connection between movement of the atoms on the one hand, and thinking and sensation on the other, is not to be comprehended,6Du Bois-Reymond: Concerning the Limits of the Recognition of Nature (see p. 4, footnote). which atomism therefore sees as a limit of our recognition. Only, there is something to comprehend only where a conceptual passage over exists. But if one first so limits the concepts that in the sphere of the one, nothing is to be found that would make possible the passage to the sphere of the other, then comprehending is excluded from the start. Moreover, this passage would have to be indeed not of a merely speculative nature, but rather it would have to be a real process, thus permitting of being demonstrated. But this is again prevented by the non-sensoriness of atomistic motion. With the giving up of the concept of the atom, these speculations about the limit of our knowledge fall away by themselves. From nothing must one guard oneself more than from such determinations of boundary, for beyond the boundary there is then room for everything possible. The most irrational spiritism, as well as the most nonsensical dogma, could hide behind such assumptions. The same are quite easy to refute in every single case, by showing that at their foundation there always lies the mistake of seeing a mere abstraction for more than it is, or holding merely relative concepts to be absolute ones, and similar errors. A large number of false notions has come into circulation especially through the incorrect concepts of space and time.7Vischer has repeatedly pronounced the necessity of a correction of our concept of time (Critical Passages, 1873, Old and New, Part 3).
Hence we must subject these two concepts to a discussion. The mechanistic explanation of nature needs for the assumption of its world of atoms, besides the atoms in motion absolute space as well, that is, an empty vacuum, and an absolute time, that is, an unalterable measure of the One-After-Another.8Compare: Otto Liebmann,Thoughts and Facts, Strasbourg, 1882. But what is space? Absolute extension can be the only answer. Only, that is only a characteristic of sensory objects, and apart from these a mere abstraction, existent only upon and with the objects, and not beside them as atomism must necessarily assume. If extension is to be present, something must be extended, and this cannot again be Extension. Here, for a proof of the absoluteness of space, one will be able to raise as an objection, say, the Kantian invention about the two gloves of the left and right hand. One says, their parts have, after all, the same relationship to one another, and yet one cannot make the two congruent. From this, Kant concludes that the relationship to absolute space is a different one, hence absolute space exists. But it is more obvious, after all, to assume that the relationship of the two gloves to one another is simply such that they cannot be made congruent. How should a relationship to absolute space be thought of, anyway? And even assuming it were possible, the relationships of the two gloves to absolute space would, however, only then establish in turn a relationship of the two gloves to one another. Why should this relationship not just as well be able to be a primary one? Space, apart from the things of the world of the senses, is an absurdity. As space is only something upon the objects, so time is also given only upon and with the processes of the world of the senses. It is inherent in them. By themselves, both are mere abstractions. Only the sensory things and processes are concrete items of the world of the senses. They present concepts and laws in the form of outer existence. Therefore they in their simplest form must be a fundamental pillar of the empirical study of nature. The simple sensory quality and not the atom, the fundamental fact and not the motion behind what is empirical, are the elements of the empirical study of nature. It is thereby given a direction which is the only possible one. If one takes that as a basis, one will not be tempted at all to speak of limits of recognizing, because one is not dealing with things to which one attributes arbitrary negative characteristics such as supersensible and the like, but rather with actually given concrete objects.
From these mentions, important conclusions will also result for epistemology. But foremost, it is certain that the atom and the motion behind the empirical must be exchanged for the fundamental sensory elements of outer experience, and henceforth can no longer count as principles of the study of nature.
7. Einzig mögliche Kritik der atomistischen Begriffe.
Die moderne Naturwissenschaft betrachtet die Erfahrung als die einzige Quelle zur Erforschung der Wahrheit. Und dies gewiss nicht mit Unrecht. Ihr Gebiet ist das Reich der äußeren räumlichen Dinge und zeitlichen Vorgänge. Wie sollte man über einen der Außenwelt angehörigen Gegenstand etwas ausmachen können, ohne ihn mittelst der Sinneswahrnehmung, d[as] i[st] der einzigen Art, mit Räumlich-Zeitlichem in Berührung zu kommen, kennengelernt zu haben. Erst das Objekt kennenlernen 1Vergl. Vischer, Altes und Neues, 3. Teil, S. 51 ff. ) und dann darüber theoretisieren, so lautet die Maxime, welche die moderne Wissenschaft gegenüber den spekulativen Systemen der Naturphilosophen vom Anfange dieses Jahrhunderts geltend macht. Dies Prinzip ist durchaus berechtigt, aber es hat durch eine irrige Auffassung die Wissenschaft auf Abwege geführt. Das Missverständnis liegt in dem Charakter, welchen die induktive Methode und der aus derselben fließende Materialismus und Atomismus den Allgemeinbegriffen beilegen. Es kann für den Einsichtigen kein Zweifel sein, dass der jetzige Stand der Naturwissenschaft in ihrem theoretischen Teile wesentlich beeinflusst ist von Begriffen, wie sie durch Kant herrschend geworden sind. Wollen wir auf dieses Verhältnis näher eingehen, so müssen wir bei ihm unsere Betrachtung anheben. Kant schränkte das Gebiet der Erkenntnis auf die Erfahrung ein, weil er in dem durch dieselbe vermittelten sinnlichen Stoff die einzige Möglichkeit fand, die in unserer geistigen Organisation liegenden, an sich ganz leeren Begriffsschemen, die Kategorien, auszufüllen. Ihm war sinnlicher Gehalt die einzige Form eines solchen. Damit hatte er das Urteil der Welt in andre Bahnen gelenkt. Hatte man früher die Begriffe und Gesetze als der Außenwelt angehörig gedacht, hatte man ihnen objektive Geltung zugeschrieben, so schienen sie jetzt bloß durch die Natur des «Ich» gegeben. Die Außenwelt galt zwar bloß als roher Stoff, doch als dasjenige, welchem allein Realität zuzuschreiben sei. Diesen Standpunkt hat die induktive Wissenschaft von Kant geerbt. Auch ihr gilt die materielle Welt als das allein Reale, bei ihr sind Begriffe und Gesetze nur insoferne berechtigt, als sie jene zum Inhalte haben und das Erkennen derselben vermitteln. Über dieses Reich hinausragende Begriffe betrachtet sie als unwirklich. Allgemeine Gedanken und Gesetze sind ihr bloße Abstraktionen, abgeleitet von den bei einer Reihe von Beobachtungen erfahrenen Übereinstimmungen. Sie kennt bloße subjektive Maximen, Generalisationen, keine ihre Geltung in sich selbst tragenden, konkreten Begriffe. Dies muss beachtet werden, wenn man aus einer Menge dunkler Begriffe, die heutzutage im Umlauf sind, bis zur vollkommenen Klarheit hindurchdringen will. Man wird sich zunächst fragen müssen: was ist denn eigentlich Erfahrung, gewonnen an diesem oder jenem Objekte? In Werken über Erfahrungsphilosophie wird man vergebens nach einer sachlichen, befriedigenden Antwort auf diese gewiss berechtigte Frage suchen.
Ein Objekt der Außenwelt seinem Wesen nach erkennen kann doch unmöglich heißen, dasselbe mit den Sinnen wahrnehmen und so, wie es sich diesen darstellt, von demselben ein Konterfei entwerfen. Man wird niemals einsehen, wie von einem Sinnlichen eine korrespondierende begriffliche Fotografie entstehen und welche Beziehung zwischen beiden sein könne. Eine Erkenntnistheorie, welche von diesem Standpunkte ausgeht, kann über die Frage nach dem Zusammenhange von Begriff und Objekt nie ins Reine kommen 2Man vergleiche damit die scharfsinnigen Ausführungen Rehmkes in dessen gediegenem Werke «Die Welt als Wahrnehmung und Begriff» Berlin 1880. ). Wie sollte man die Notwendigkeit einsehen, über das unmittelbar durch den Sinn Gegebene zum Begriffe zu gehen, wenn in dem Ersteren bereits das Wesen eines Gegenstandes der sinnlichen Welt gegeben wäre? Wozu noch das Begreifen, wenn schon das Anschauen genügte? Es wäre wenigstens der Begriff, wenn nicht eine Verfälschung, doch eine höchst unnötige Zugabe zu dem Objekte. Dazu muss man kommen, wenn man die Konkretheit der Begriffe und Gesetze leugnet. Gegenüber von solchen bildlichen Erklärungen, wie etwa auch die der Herbart’schen Schule: der Begriff sei das geistige Korrelat eines außer uns befindlichen Gegenstandes, und das Erkennen bestehe in der Erlangung eines solchen Bildes, wollen wir nun nach einer Realerklärung des Erkennens suchen.
Wir wollen uns hier der Aufgabe gemäß, die wir uns setzen, bloß auf das Erkennen der Außenwelt beschränken. Im Akte des Erkennens kommt in diesem Falle zweierlei in Betracht: Die Bestätigung des Denkens und die der Sinne. Das Erstere hat es mit Begriffen und Gesetzen, die Letzteren mit sinnlichen Qualitäten und Prozessen zu tun. Der Begriff und das Gesetz sind immer etwas Allgemeines, das sinnliche Objekt etwas Besonderes; die Ersteren können nur gedacht, das Letztere nur angeschaut werden. Die Medien, durch welche das Allgemeine uns als Besonderes erscheint, sind Raum und Zeit. Jedes besondere Ding und jeder besondere Prozess muss dem begrifflichen Inhalte der Welt eingefügt werden können, denn was an ihm nicht gesetz- und begriffsmäßig wäre, kommt für unser Denken gar nicht in Betracht. Es kann daher erkennen eines Objektes nur heißen: das, was unseren Sinnen im Raume erscheint, in die Allgemeinheit des Begriffsinhaltes der Welt einreihen, ja ganz aufgehen lassen. Im Erkennen eines räumlich-zeitlichen Objektes ist uns also nichts anderes als ein Begriff oder Gesetz auf sinnenfällige Weise gegeben. Nur durch eine solche Auffassung kommt man über die vorhin erwähnte Unklarheit hinaus. Man muss dem Begriffe seine Ursprünglichkeit, seine eigene auf sich selbst gebaute Daseinsform lassen und ihn in dem sinnenfälligen Gegenstande nur in anderer Form wiedererkennen. So sind wir zu einer Realdefinition der Erfahrung gelangt. Die Philosophie der Induktion kann ihrer Natur nach nie zu einer solchen gelangen. Denn es müsste gezeigt werden, in welcher Weise die Erfahrung Begriff und Gesetz vermittelt. Da aber jene diese beiden als etwas bloß Subjektives ansieht, so ist ihr von vorneherein der Weg dazu abgeschnitten.
Daraus sieht man zugleich, wie unfruchtbar das Unternehmen wäre, über die äußere Welt ohne Hilfe der Wahrnehmung etwas ausmachen zu wollen. Wie kann man sich des Begriffes in Form der Anschauung bemächtigen, ohne die Anschauung selbst zu vollbringen? Erst wenn man einsieht, dass es Begriff und Idee ist, was die Wahrnehmung bietet, aber in wesentlich anderer Form als in der von allem empirischen Gehalt befreiten des reinen Denkens, und dass diese Form das Ausschlaggebende ist, begreift man, dass man den Weg der Erfahrung einschlagen muss. Nimmt man aber an, es sei der Inhalt das Maßgebende, dann kann der Behauptung, dass derselbe Inhalt doch auch auf eine von aller Erfahrung unabhängige Weise erworben werden könne, nichts entgegengesetzt werden. Also Erfahrung muss wohl die Maxime der Naturphilosophie sein, aber zugleich Erkenntnis des Begriffs in Form der äußeren Erfahrung. Und hier ist es, wo die moderne Naturwissenschaft dadurch, dass sie keinen klaren Begriff von Erfahrung suchte, auf Irrwege kam. An dieser Stelle wurde sie wiederholt angegriffen und ist auch leicht angreifbar. Anstatt die Apriorität des Begriffes anzuerkennen und die Sinnenwelt nur als eine andere Form desselben aufzufassen, betrachtet sie denselben als bloßes Derivat der Außenwelt, die ihr absolutes Prius ist. Die bloße Form einer Sache wird so zur Sache selbst gestempelt. Aus dieser Unklarheit der Begriffe geht der Atomismus, insoferne er materialistisch ist, hervor. Wir wollen hier denselben, gestützt auf das Vorhergehende, einer sorgfältigen und der — wie ich glaube annehmen zu können — einzig möglichen Kritik unterwerfen.
Wie auch die Meinungen im Einzelnen auseinandergehen mögen, zuletzt kommt doch der Atomismus darauf hinaus, alle sinnlichen Qualitäten als: Ton, Wärme, Licht, Geruch usw. ja, wenn man auf die Art und Weise sieht, wie die mechanische Wärmetheorie das Mariotte’sche Gesetz ableitet, sogar den Druck als bloßen Schein, bloße Funktion der Atomenwelt anzusehen. Das Atom allein gilt als letzter Wirklichkeitsfaktor. Diesem muss man nun folgerichtig jede sinnliche Qualität absprechen, weil sonst ein Ding aus sich selbst erklärt würde. Man hat zwar, [als] man daran ging, ein atomistisches Weltsystem aufzubauen 3Hierher gehören die Andeutungen, welche du Bois-Reymond über ein solches System gibt, sowie die ausgeführten Versuche von Wießner, Schramm u.a. ), dem Atome allerlei sinnliche Qualitäten, obwohl nur in ganz spärlicher Abstraktion, beigelegt. Bald betrachtet man dasselbe als ausgedehnt und undurchdringlich, bald als bloßes Kraftzentrum usw. Damit beging man aber die größte Inkonsequenz und zeigte, dass man das Obige, welches ganz klar zeigt, dass überhaupt gar keine sinnlichen Merkmale dem Atome beigelegt werden dürfen, nicht bedacht hat. Die Atome müssen eine der sinnlichen Erfahrung unzugängliche Existenz haben. Andrerseits sollen aber auch sie selbst und auch die in der Atomwelt vor sich gehenden Prozesse, speziell Bewegungen, nichts bloß Begriffliches sein. Der Begriff ist ja bloß Allgemeines, das ohne räumliches Dasein ist. Das Atom soll aber, wenn auch nicht selbst räumlich, doch im Raume da sein, doch etwas Besonderes darstellen. Es soll in seinem Begriffe noch nicht erschöpft sein, sondern über denselben hinaus eine Form der Existenz im Raume haben. Damit ist in den Begriff des Atomes eine Eigenschaft aufgenommen, die ihn vernichtet. Es soll analog den Gegenständen der äußeren Wahrnehmung existieren, doch nicht wahrgenommen werden können. In seinem Begriffe ist die Anschaulichkeit zugleich bejaht und verneint.
Außerdem kündigt sich das Atom sofort als ein bloßes Produkt der Spekulation an. Wenn man von den vorhin erwähnten, demselben ganz ungerechtfertigterweise beigelegten sinnlichen Qualitäten absieht, so bleibt für dasselbe nichts mehr übrig als das bloße «Etwas», das natürlich unveränderlich ist, weil an ihm nichts ist, also auch nichts zerstört werden kann. Der Gedanke des bloßen Seins, der in den Raum versetzt wird, ein bloßer Gedankenpunkt, im Grunde nur das beliebig vervielfachte Kantische «Ding an sich» tritt uns entgegen.
Man könnte dagegen etwa einwenden, dass es denn doch ganz gleichgültig sei, was unter Atom verstanden wird, man solle den Naturhistoriker ruhig damit operieren lassen — denn zu vielen Aufgaben der mathematischen Physik sind ja atomistische Vorstellungen doch vom Vorteile —; der Philosoph wisse ja schließlich doch, dass man es nicht mit einer räumlichen Realität zu tun hat, sondern mit einer Abstraktion gleich andern mathematischen Vorstellungen. Gegen die Annahme des Atomes in dieser Hinsicht sich zu wenden, wäre allerdings verfehlt. Aber darum handelt es sich nicht. Es ist den Philosophen um jenen Atomismus zu tun, dem Atom und Kausalität 4Vergl. Vischer, Altes u. Neues, [3]. Teil. ) die einzig möglichen Triebfedern der Welt sind, der entweder alles nicht Mechanische leugnet oder doch als über unser Erkenntnisvermögen hinausgehend für unerklärlich hält 5Diese Ansicht vertritt du Bois-Reymond in «Über die Grenzen des Naturerkennens» und «Die sieben Welträtsel». ).
Es ist ein anderes, das Atom als bloßen Gedankenpunkt anzusehen, ein anderes, darinnen das Grundprinzip alles Daseins sehen zu wollen. Der erstere Standpunkt geht mit demselben nie über die mechanische Natur hinaus, der zweite hält alles für eine mechanische Funktion. Wer von der Unschädlichkeit der atomistischen Vorstellungen sprechen wollte, dem könnte man ruhig die Konsequenzen, welche aus denselben gezogen worden sind, vorhalten, um ihn zu widerlegen. Es sind vorzüglich zwei notwendige Konsequenzen: erstens, dass das Prädikat der ursprünglichen Existenz an weiter ganz unbestimmte, gegeneinander schlechthin gleichgültige, geistlose Einzelsubstanzen verschwendet wird, in deren Wechselwirkung nur mechanische Notwendigkeit herrscht, sodass die ganze übrige Erscheinungswelt als leerer Dunst derselben besteht und dem bloßen Zufall das Entstehen verdankt; zweitens ergeben sich daraus unüberschreitbare Grenzen unseres Erkennens. Für den menschlichen Verstand ist, wie wir gezeigt haben, der Begriff des Atomes etwas ganz Leeres, das bloße «Etwas». Da aber mit diesem Inhalte die Atomisten sich nicht zufriedengeben können, sondern einen tatsächlichen Gehalt verlangen, diesen aber so bestimmen, wie er nirgends gegeben werden kann, so müssen sie die Unerkennbarkeit des eigentlichen Wesens des Atomes proklamieren.
Bezüglich der anderen Grenze des Wissens ist Folgendes zu bemerken. Wenn man das Denken auch als eine Funktion der Wechselwirkung gleichgültig gegeneinander bleibender Atomkomplexe ansieht, so ist durchaus nicht zu verwundern, warum der Zusammenhang zwischen Bewegung der Atome einer-, Denken und Empfindung andrerseits nicht zu begreifen ist 6Du Bois-Reymond: «Grenzen des Naturerkennens». ), welches der Atomismus daher als eine Grenze unserer Erkenntnis ansieht. Allein zu begreifen ist nur da etwas, wo ein begrifflicher Übergang besteht. Wenn man aber vorher die Begriffe so begrenzt, dass in der Sphäre des einen sich nichts findet, was den Übergang in die Sphäre des andern ermöglichen würde, so ist das Begreifen von vorneherein ausgeschlossen. Außerdem müsste dieser Übergang ja nicht bloß spekulativer Natur, sondern er müsste ein realer Prozess sein, sich also demonstrieren lassen. Dies wird aber wieder durch die Unsinnlichkeit der atomistischen Bewegung verhindert. Mit dem Aufgeben des Atombegriffes fallen diese Spekulationen über die Grenze unseres Wissens von selbst weg. Man muss sich vor nichts mehr als solchen Grenzbestimmungen hüten, denn jenseits der Grenze ist dann für alles mögliche Platz. Der vernunftwidrigste Spiritismus ebensosehr wie das unsinnigste Dogma könnte sich hinter solchen Annahmen verstecken. Dieselben sind in jedem einzelnen Falle ganz leicht zu widerlegen, indem man zeigt, dass immer der Fehler zugrunde liegt, eine bloße Abstraktion für mehr anzusehen als sie ist, oder bloß relative Begriffe für absolute zu halten und ähnliche Irrtümer. Eine große Anzahl falscher Vorstellungen ist namentlich durch die unrichtigen Begriffe von Raum und Zeit in Umlauf gekommen. 7Vischer sprach wiederholt die Notwendigkeit einer Korrektur unseres Zeitbegriffes aus (Kritische] Gänge, 1873, Altes und Neues, 3. Teil).)
Wir müssen diese beiden Begriffe daher einer Diskussion unterwerfen. Die mechanische Naturerklärung bedarf zur Annahme ihrer Atomenwelt außer den in Bewegung begriffenen Atomen noch den absoluten Raum, das ist ein leeres Vakuum, und eine absolute Zeit, das ist einen unveränderlichen Maßstab des Nacheinander.8Man vergleiche: Otto Liebmann, Gedanken u. Tatsachen. ) Was ist aber Raum? Absolute Ausdehnung kann die einzige Antwort sein. Allein diese ist nur ein Merkmal der sinnlichen Gegenstände und, abgesehen von diesen, eine bloße Abstraktion, nur da an und mit den Gegenständen und nicht neben denselben, wie der Atomismus notwendig annehmen muss. Wenn Ausdehnung vorhanden sein soll, so muss etwas ausgedehnt sein, und dies kann nicht wieder die Ausdehnung sein. Man wird hier etwa zum Beweise der Absolutheit des Raumes den Kantischen Einfall von den beiden Handschuhen der linken und rechten Hand einwenden können. Man sagt, die Teile derselben haben doch dasselbe Verhältnis zueinander, und doch kann man beide nicht zur Deckung bringen. Daraus schließt Kant, dass das Verhältnis zum absoluten Raum ein anderes ist, dieser mithin bestehe. Viel näher liegt es aber doch anzunehmen, das Verhältnis der beiden Handschuhe zueinander sei eben derart, dass sie nicht zur Deckung gebracht werden können. Wie sollte auch ein Verhältnis zum absoluten Raume gedacht werden? Und selbst angenommen, es wäre möglich, so begründeten doch die Verhältnisse der beiden Handschuhe zum absoluten Raume erst wieder ein solches derselben zueinander. Warum sollte dies nicht ebensogut ein ursprüngliches sein können? Der Raum, abgesehen von den Dingen der Sinnenwelt, ist ein Unding. Wie der Raum nur etwas an den Gegenständen, so ist auch die Zeit nur an und mit den Prozessen der Sinnenwelt gegeben. Sie ist denselben immanent. An sich sind beide bloße Abstraktionen. Konkrete Gebilde der Sinnenwelt sind nur die sinnlichen Dinge und Prozesse. Sie stellen Begriffe und Gesetze in Form äußeren Daseins vor. Daher müssen sie in ihrer einfachsten Form Grundpfeiler der empirischen Naturlehre sein. Die einfache sinnliche Qualität und nicht das Atom, die Grundtatsache und nicht die hinterempirische Bewegung sind die Elemente derselben. Damit ist ihr eine Richtung gegeben, welche die einzig mögliche ist. Wenn man sich darauf stützt, wird man gar nicht versucht werden, von Grenzen des Erkennens zu sprechen, weil man es nicht mit Dingen zu tun hat, denen man willkürliche negative Merkmale wie übersinnlich u. dergl. beilegt, sondern mit wirklich gegebenen konkreten Gegenständen.
Aus diesen Andeutungen werden sich auch für die Erkenntnistheorie wichtige Folgerungen ergeben. Vor allem steht aber fest, dass das Atom und die hinterempirische Bewegung gegen die sinnlichen Grundelemente der äußeren Erfahrung vertauscht werden müssen und fortan nicht mehr als Prinzipien der Naturlehre gelten können.
7. The only possible criticism of atomistic concepts.
Modern science regards experience as the only source for the investigation of truth. And this is certainly not without reason. Its domain is the realm of external spatial things and temporal processes. How could one possibly understand anything about an object belonging to the external world without first getting to know it through sensory perception, which is the only way to come into contact with space and time? Only after getting to know the object 1Cf. Vischer, Altes und Neues, Part 3, p. 51 ff. ) and then theorizing about it is the maxim that modern science asserts in contrast to the speculative systems of the natural philosophers of the beginning of this century. This principle is entirely justified, but it has led science astray through an erroneous conception. The misunderstanding lies in the character that the inductive method and the materialism and atomism flowing from it attribute to general concepts. There can be no doubt for the discerning that the current state of natural science in its theoretical part is essentially influenced by concepts that have become dominant through Kant. If we want to examine this relationship more closely, we must begin our consideration with him. Kant limited the realm of knowledge to experience because he found in the sensory material conveyed by it the only possibility of filling the conceptual schemata, the categories, which are in themselves completely empty and lie within our mental organization. For him, sensory content was the only form of such a scheme. In doing so, he had steered the judgment of the world in a different direction. Whereas previously concepts and laws had been thought of as belonging to the external world and had been attributed objective validity, they now seemed to be given solely by the nature of the “I.” The external world was regarded merely as raw material, but as the only thing to which reality could be attributed. Kant's inductive science inherited this point of view. It, too, regards the material world as the only reality; for it, concepts and laws are justified only insofar as they have that world as their content and convey the knowledge of it. It regards concepts that transcend this realm as unreal. General ideas and laws are mere abstractions, derived from the similarities experienced in a series of observations. It knows only subjective maxims, generalizations, and no concrete concepts that are valid in themselves. This must be taken into account if one wants to penetrate to complete clarity from the multitude of obscure concepts that are in circulation today. One must first ask oneself: what actually is experience gained from this or that object? In works on the philosophy of experience, one will search in vain for an objective, satisfactory answer to this certainly justified question.
To recognize an object of the external world in its essence cannot possibly mean to perceive it with the senses and to draw a likeness of it as it appears to them. One will never understand how a corresponding conceptual photograph can arise from a sensory one and what relationship there could be between the two. A theory of knowledge based on this point of view can never come to terms with the question of the connection between concept and object 2Compare this with Rehmke's astute remarks in his solid work “Die Welt als Wahrnehmung und Begriff” (The World as Perception and Concept), Berlin 1880. ). How could one understand the necessity of going beyond what is immediately given by the senses to the concept, if the former already contained the essence of an object of the sensory world? Why bother with comprehension if mere observation were sufficient? The concept would be, if not a falsification, then at least a highly unnecessary addition to the object. This is the conclusion one must reach if one denies the concreteness of concepts and laws. In contrast to such figurative explanations, such as those of the Herbartian school, which hold that the concept is the mental correlate of an object outside ourselves and that cognition consists in the acquisition of such an image, we now want to seek a real explanation of cognition.
In accordance with the task we have set ourselves, we will limit ourselves here to the recognition of the external world. In the act of recognition, two things come into consideration in this case: the confirmation of thought and that of the senses. The former has to do with concepts and laws, the latter with sensory qualities and processes. The concept and the law are always something general, the sensory object something particular; the former can only be thought, the latter only seen. The media through which the general appears to us as particular are space and time. Every particular thing and every particular process must be able to be inserted into the conceptual content of the world, for whatever is not lawful and conceptual in it is not even considered by our thinking. Therefore, recognizing an object can only mean classifying what appears to our senses in space into the generality of the conceptual content of the world, indeed allowing it to be completely absorbed into it. In recognizing a spatial-temporal object, we are thus given nothing other than a concept or law in a way that is apparent to the senses. Only through such a conception can we overcome the aforementioned ambiguity. One must allow the concept its originality, its own form of existence built upon itself, and recognize it in the object that is apparent to the senses only in a different form. In this way, we have arrived at a real definition of experience. The philosophy of induction can never arrive at such a definition by its very nature. For it would have to show how experience mediates concept and law. But since it regards these two as merely subjective, the path to this is cut off from the outset.
From this we can also see how fruitless it would be to try to understand the external world without the help of perception. How can one grasp the concept in the form of intuition without performing the intuition itself? Only when one realizes that it is concepts and ideas that perception offers, but in a form that is essentially different from that of pure thought, which is freed from all empirical content, and that this form is the decisive factor, does one understand that one must take the path of experience. But if one assumes that it is the content that is decisive, then nothing can be said against the assertion that the same content can also be acquired in a way that is independent of all experience. So experience must indeed be the maxim of natural philosophy, but at the same time knowledge of the concept in the form of external experience. And this is where modern natural science went astray by not seeking a clear concept of experience. At this point, it has been repeatedly attacked and is also easily attackable. Instead of recognizing the apriority of the concept and understanding the sensory world as merely another form of it, it regards it as a mere derivative of the external world, which is its absolute prius. The mere form of a thing is thus stamped as the thing itself. This lack of clarity in concepts gives rise to atomism, insofar as it is materialistic. Based on the foregoing, we want to subject it here to a careful and, as I believe I can assume, the only possible criticism.
However much opinions may differ in detail, atomism ultimately boils down to viewing all sensory qualities such as sound, heat, light, smell, etc., and even pressure, if one considers the way in which mechanical heat theory derives Mariotte's law, as mere appearances, mere functions of the atomic world. The atom alone is considered the ultimate factor of reality. Consequently, every sensory quality must be denied to it, because otherwise a thing would be explained by itself. When one set out to construct an atomistic world system 3This includes the hints given by du Bois-Reymond about such a system, as well as the experiments carried out by Wießner, Schramm, and others ), atoms were assigned all kinds of sensory qualities, albeit only in very sparse abstraction. Sometimes it is regarded as extended and impenetrable, sometimes as a mere center of force, etc. However, this was the height of inconsistency and showed that the above, which clearly demonstrates that no sensory characteristics whatsoever may be attributed to atoms, had not been taken into consideration. Atoms must have an existence that is inaccessible to sensory experience. On the other hand, however, they themselves and the processes taking place in the atomic world, especially movements, should not be merely conceptual. The concept is, after all, merely a generality that has no spatial existence. The atom, however, even if not itself spatial, should be present in space and represent something special. It should not be exhausted in its concept, but should have a form of existence in space beyond it. This adds a property to the concept of the atom that destroys it. It should exist analogously to the objects of external perception, but cannot be perceived. In its concept, vividness is both affirmed and denied.
Furthermore, the atom immediately reveals itself to be a mere product of speculation. If we disregard the aforementioned sensory qualities that have been unjustifiably attributed to it, nothing remains of it but the mere “something,” which is naturally unchangeable because there is nothing to it, and therefore nothing can be destroyed. We are confronted with the idea of mere being, which is placed in space, a mere point of thought, basically only the arbitrarily multiplied Kantian “thing in itself.”
One could object, however, that it is entirely irrelevant what is meant by an atom, that natural historians should be allowed to operate with it—after all, atomistic ideas are advantageous for many tasks in mathematical physics—and that philosophers know that they are not dealing with a spatial reality, but with an abstraction like other mathematical ideas. It would be wrong, however, to oppose the assumption of the atom in this respect. But that is not the point. Philosophers are concerned with that atomism in which the atom and causality 4Cf. Vischer, Altes u. Neues, [3]. Part. ) are the only possible driving forces in the world, which either denies everything that is not mechanical or considers it inexplicable as being beyond our power of cognition 5This view is represented by du Bois-Reymond in “On the Limits of Natural Knowledge” and “The Seven Riddles of the World.” ).It is one thing to regard the atom as a mere point of thought, and quite another to see in it the fundamental principle of all existence. The former point of view never goes beyond mechanical nature, while the latter considers everything to be a mechanical function. Anyone who wanted to speak of the harmlessness of atomistic ideas could easily be refuted by pointing out the consequences that have been drawn from them. There are two necessary consequences in particular: first, that the predicate of original existence is wasted on completely indeterminate, mutually indifferent, spiritless individual substances, in whose interaction only mechanical necessity prevails, so that the entire remaining phenomenal world consists of empty vapor of the same and owes its existence to mere chance; secondly, this results in insurmountable limits to our knowledge. For the human mind, as we have shown, the concept of the atom is something completely empty, the mere “something.” But since the atomists cannot be satisfied with this content, but demand actual substance, yet define it in such a way that it cannot be found anywhere, they must proclaim the unknowability of the actual essence of the atom.
The following should be noted with regard to the other limit of knowledge. If one regards thinking as a function of the interaction of atom complexes that remain indifferent to each other, it is not at all surprising that the connection between the movement of atoms on the one hand and thinking and sensation on the other cannot be understood 6Du Bois-Reymond: “Grenzen des Naturerkennens” (Limits of Natural Knowledge). ), which atomism therefore regards as a limit of our knowledge. Understanding is only possible where there is a conceptual transition. But if the concepts are limited in such a way that nothing can be found in the sphere of one that would enable the transition to the sphere of the other, then understanding is ruled out from the outset. Furthermore, this transition would not have to be merely speculative in nature, but would have to be a real process, i.e., it would have to be demonstrable. However, this is again prevented by the non-sensuality of the atomistic movement. With the abandonment of the concept of the atom, these speculations about the limits of our knowledge fall away by themselves. One no longer has to be wary of such limitations, because beyond the limit there is then room for anything possible. The most irrational spiritualism, just like the most nonsensical dogma, could hide behind such assumptions. These are very easy to refute in each individual case by showing that they are always based on the mistake of considering a mere abstraction to be more than it is, or of considering merely relative concepts to be absolute, and similar errors. A large number of false ideas have come into circulation, particularly through incorrect concepts of space and time. 7Vischer repeatedly expressed the need to correct our concept of time (Kritische] Gänge, 1873, Altes und Neues, Part 3).)
We must therefore subject these two concepts to discussion. In order to accept its atomic world, the mechanical explanation of nature requires, in addition to atoms in motion, absolute space, that is, an empty vacuum, and absolute time, that is, an unchanging measure of succession. 8 Compare: Otto Liebmann, Thoughts and Facts. ) But what is space? Absolute extension can be the only answer. However, this is only a characteristic of sensory objects and, apart from these, a mere abstraction, existing only in and with the objects and not alongside them, as atomism must necessarily assume. If extension is to exist, something must be extended, and this cannot be extension itself. One might object here, as proof of the absoluteness of space, with Kant's idea of the two gloves for the left and right hands. One says that the parts of the same have the same relationship to each other, and yet one cannot bring them into alignment. From this Kant concludes that the relationship to absolute space is different, and that it therefore exists. However, it is much more reasonable to assume that the relationship between the two gloves is such that they cannot be made to coincide. How could a relationship to absolute space even be conceived? And even if it were possible, the relationships of the two gloves to absolute space would again establish such a relationship between them. Why should this not be just as valid as an original one? Space, apart from the things of the sensory world, is an absurdity. Just as space is only something in relation to objects, so too is time only given in and with the processes of the sensory world. It is immanent to them. In themselves, both are mere abstractions. Concrete entities of the sensory world are only sensory things and processes. They represent concepts and laws in the form of external existence. Therefore, in their simplest form, they must be the cornerstones of empirical natural science. Simple sensory quality and not the atom, the basic fact and not the behind-empirical movement are the elements of the same. This gives it a direction, which is the only one possible. If one relies on this, one will not be tempted to speak of the limits of knowledge, because one is not dealing with things to which one assigns arbitrary negative characteristics such as supernatural and the like, but with truly given concrete objects.
These suggestions will also lead to important conclusions for epistemology. Above all, however, it is clear that the atom and the behind-empirical movement must be exchanged for the sensory basic elements of external experience and can no longer be regarded as principles of natural science.
